Breastfeeding,
why...
Milosavljevic
N, Virijevic V. Methods of feeding and illness in
infants the first six months of life, Srp Arh
Celok Lek, 125(11-12): 325-8, 1997.
This work retrospectively analyzed
the incidence of respiratory and digestive illnesses
occurring before six months of age, according to whether
or not the infants had received breast milk. All of
the babies, born in the community of Krushevac in 1994
with more than 36 weeks gestation and/or birth weights
of 2500g or more, were included in the study. The authors
found that the incidence of gastrointestinal and respiratory
illnesses (including acute otitis media) was significantly
lower in breastfed infants.
Weerheijm KL,
Uyttendaele Speybrouck BF, Euwe HC, Groen HJ. Prolonged
demand breast-feeding and nursing caries, Caries
Research, 32(1): 46-50, 1998.
This study explored the caries risk
associated with prolonged breastfeeding in a group of
96 Dutch infants. The average weaning age was 21.5 months
(SD 9.8) and the median age of first dental cleaning
was 11.7 months (DS 5.1). 70% utilized fluoride products.
The study showed that a prolonged demand for breastfeeding
did not raise the prevalence of caries.
Inaba N, Okajima
Y, Kang XS, Ishikawa K, Fukasawa I. Maternal-infant
transmission of hepatitis G virus, American Journal
of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 177(6): 1537-8, 1997.
Doctors studied the risk of vertical
infection in seven children born to mothers with positive
reactions to the ribonucleic acid (RNA) of the Hepatitis
G virus and antibodies to Hepatitis G. The risk of transmission
of the Hepatitis G virus in uterus or in the birth canal
seemed to be much more significant than through breast
milk.
Carbonare SB,
Silva ML, Palmeira P, Carneiro Sampaio MM. Human
colostrum IgA antibodies reacting to enteropathogenic
Escherichia coli antigens and their persistence
in the feces of a breastfed infant, Journal of
Diarrhoeal Disease Research, 15(2): 53-8, 1997.
Researchers studied the reaction
of IgA antibodies from human colostrum to bacterium
(Escherichia coli) antigen (EPEC) and their role
in preventing the attachment of the EPEC to Hep-2 cells.
The authors were able to confirm that these antibodies
play an important role in the protection of the newborn
against enteropathogenic E. coli infections.
Wu TC, Hwang
B. Blood nutrient indices in breast and formula fed
infants: amino acids metabolic responses, Chung
Hua Min Kuo Hsiao Erh Ko I Hsueh Hui Tsa Chih, 38(5):
345-51, 1997.
Breast milk is generally considered
the best food for infants and formulas are usually made
to imitate human milk. Manufacturers, therefore, hypothesize
that the metabolic reactions that occur in babies fed
with formula should be similar to those occurring in
those fed with breast milk. This study on growth and
metabolism was carried out during eight weeks and included
90 healthy, full-term infants: 30 were exclusively breast-fed,
30 were predominantly fed formula and 30 were predominantly
fed casein. The results showed that many of the essential
amino acids in plasma were significantly higher in the
formula-fed infants. While the tryptophan amino acid
levels were lower in both artificially fed groups, the
plasma taurine amino acid levels were lower in the casein
group. These results suggest the need to re-evaluate
the quantities and quality of proteins in infant formulas.
Barros FC, Victora
CG, Morris SS, Halpern R, Horta BL, Tomasi E. Breast
feeding, pacifier use and infant development at 12 months
of age: a birth cohort study in Brazil, Paediatric
Perinatal Epidemiology, 11(4): 441-50, 1997.
Many studies suggest that breastfeeding
confers intellectual and developmental advantages upon
children. A cohort of 5,304 children born during 1993
in the city of Pelotas (Brazil) was studied, with checkups
at one, three, six and 12 months of age. Breastfeeding
practices, as well as pacifier use, were evaluated.
Development was measured according to the Denver II
Test. It was found that the longer that infants breastfed,
the fewer developmental delays they showed. The results
showed that higher parity, smoking during pregnancy,
birth weight, gestational age, pacifier use, and duration
of breastfeeding all have significant associations with
development. The effect of pacifier use disappeared
when adjusted for duration of breastfeeding, which suggests
that it is breastfeeding, and not pacifier use which
has a positive effect on infant development.
Tram TH, Brand
Miller JC, McNeil Y, McVeagh P. Sialic acid content
of infant saliva: comparison of breast fed with formula
fed infants, Archives of Diseases in Childhood,
77(4): 315-8, 1997.
Sialic acid is found in especially
high levels in the brain. Supplementation with sialic
acid has been associated with an increase in learning
behavior in animals. The investigators in this study
demonstrated that the levels in saliva of sialic acid
concentration in 18 breastfed infants were almost twice
those found in 15 formula-fed infants. The authors concluded
that the higher sialic acid concentration in breast
milk is responsible for the higher concentration in
body fluids and tissues of breastfed infants. They also
recommend reformulating the quantities of sialic acids
contained in infant formula.
Challacombe
DN, Mecrow IK, Elliot K, Clarke FJ, Wheeler EE. Changing
infant feeding practices and declining coeliac disease
in West Somerset. Archives of Diseases in Childhood,
77(3): 206-9, 1997.
The association between changing
infant feeding practices and the decline in new cases
of coeliac disease, as well as temporary gluten intolerance,
were studied in West Somerset, England from 1971 to
1992. The dietary histories of 18 coeliac patients and
23 controls from 1971 to 1980 and of 8 coeliacs and
39 controls from 1981 to 1992 were studied. It was found
that the later introduction of gluten and the increased
use of rice and other gluten-free foods during the weaning
period, as well as the greater incidence of breastfeeding,
were factors associated with the decline in cases.
Donma MM, Donma
O. The influence of feeding patterns on head circumference
among Turkish infants during the first 6 months of life.
Brain Development, 19(6): 393-7, 1997.
In this study head measurements
(CP), of 172 healthy newborns were evaluated. 62 of
the newborns were exclusively breastfed, 58 received
mixed breast milk and formula, and 52 were exclusively
formula-fed. At the time of birth, there was no significant
difference among the three groups. At one month of age,
the CPs of the exclusively breastfed infants were significantly
greater than those in either of the other groups. In
the four following months, there were no significant
differences. At six months, the CP values for the age
of the infants fed mixed and artificial milks were significantly
lower than those of the exclusively breastfed infants
(p<0.05.) The authors maintain that exclusive breastfeeding
is adequate for the first six months of life.
Bass SM, Groer
MW. Relationship of breast-feeding and formula-feeding
practices with infant health outcomes in an urban poor
population. Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal
Nursing, 11(2): 1-9, 1997.
Mothers in this prospective study
filled out a questionnaire on demographic and anthropometric
factors, their childrens' infections, including medicines
and medical attention. The results showed that the mothers
who were more likely to breastfeed were white, older,
and had higher economic status. The infants who were
formula-fed had more illnesses. The breastfed infants
suffered less frequently from colds, rashes, vomiting,
ear infections, and in general, used the healthcare
system less.
Hassan K, Sullivan
KM, Yip R, Woodroof BA. Factors associated with anemia
in refugee children, Journal of Nutrition, 127(11):
2194-8, 1997.
In 1990, a nutritional study on
Palestinian refugee children between the ages of 6 to
35 months was completed. 65% were anemic (Hb < 11.0g/l).
The factors that were significantly related with anemia
were: lack of breastfeeding, male sex, illiterate mothers,
recent or repeated episodes of diarrhea and slow growth.
Golding J, Emmett
PM, Rogers IS. Does breast-feeding protect against
non-gastric infections? Early Human Development,
49 Suppl: S105-20, 1997.
The authors affirm that prolonged
breastfeeding, as well as providing protection against
digestive tract infections, provided an important protection
against Haemophilus influenzae B infections and
against the occurrence of otitis media.
Hokama T, Imamura
T. Members of the throat microflora among infants
with different feeding methods. Journal of Tropical
Pediatrics, 44(2): 84-6, 1998.
The normal microflora of the throat
plays a protective role against pathogenic bacteria.
The throat microflora of 60 one-month-old infants were
studied. Of these infants, 30 were exclusively breastfed,
15 were mixed fed, and 15 were fed only formula. Hemolytic
Streptococcus alpha was found in all infants.
The incidences of Streptococcus gamma and isolate negative
Staphylococcus coagulase were higher in breastfed infants.
It was also found that the negative Staphylococcus coagulase
is one of the three species of predominant bacteria
in breastfed infants.
Newburg DS,
Peterson JA, Ruiz Palacios GM, Matson DO, Morrow AL,
Shults J, et al. Role of human-milk lactadherin in
protection against symptomatic rotavirus infection.
The Lancet, 351(9110): 1160-4, 1998.
Human milk contains a glycoprotein
called lactadherin, which specifically attaches to rotaviruses
and inhibits their settling on the gut wall. This study
was done to demonstrate the hypothesis that lactadherin
protects against symptomatic rotavirus infection. 200
infants born in Mexico City were evaluated, and their
levels of specific antibodies were measured. Samples
of breast milk were also analyzed weekly for the first
four weeks of the infants' lives, and then monthly.
In the samples taken immediately before an episode of
rotavirus infection, the amounts of lactadherin, butyrophenone,
mucin and IgA secretory were analyzed. 31 infants developed
rotavirus infections; 15 had symptoms and 16 had no
symptoms. The only difference between the infants who
showed symptoms and those who did not was that the concentration
of lactadherin was significantly higher (p<0.001)
in the infants without symptoms. The authorsconcluded
that the protection that breast milk provides against
symptomatic rotavirus infection is associated with this
glycoprotein.
McCredie M,
Paul C, Skegg DC, Williams S. Reproductive factors
and breast cancer in New Zealand, International
Journal of Cancer, 76(2): 182-8, 1998.
A total of 891 women between 25
and 54 years of age with a first-time diagnosis of breast
cancer and 1864 controls were studied to analyze the
relationship existing between breast cancer and reproductive
risk factors. Among other factors such as age of menarche,
it was found that prolonged breast-feeding substantially
reduced the risk of this type of cancer, especially
amongst young women.
Yu VY. The
role of dietary nucleotides in neonatal and infant nutrition,
Singapore Medical Journal, 39(4): 145-50, 1998.
Human milk has higher concentrations
of nucleotides than bovine milk which is the principal
dairy component of infant formulas. Since human milk
is considered the "gold standard," formulas
have been enriched with nucleotides. Although it is
suggested that the dietary nucleotides possess beneficial
gastrointestinal and immunological benefits, feeding
formulas fortified with nucleotides has not been demonstrated
to confer the same benefits as breast milk.
Worobey J. Feeding
method and motor activity in 3-month-old human infants,
Perception and Motor Skills, 86(3 Pt 1): 883-95,
1998.
It is common knowledge that breastfed
infants and those that receive formulas show different
speeds in physical growth. Little is known, however,
about the differences in behavior according to feeding
methods in the first months of life. In this investigation
activity levels were monitored (measuring the motor
response) in 40 three-month-old breastfed infants and
40 three-month-old formula-fed infants. Controlling
for other variables, the breastfed infants showed greater
motor activity than those fed with formula. The author
concludes the motor activity seemed to be particularly
sensitive to feeding type.
Jayanthi S,
Seymour P, Puntis JW, Stringer MD. Necrotizing enterocolitis
after gastroschisis repair: a preventable complication?
Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 33(5): 705-7,
1998.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC)
has been documented in more than 20% of infants after
the repair of gastroclisis (a gut malformation), and
is largely responsible for morbidity. Also, NEC is reported
ten times more frequently in pre-term infants who receive
formula than in those who are exclusively breast-fed.
The question is whether breast milk confers the same
protection against NEC in infants who have to be operated
on for gastroclisis. A retrospective analysis was done
on all of the children who were operated on for gastroclisis
between 1990 and 1996.
The results show that of 60 infants with gastroclisis
six (10%) died, but without evidence of NEC. Of the
remaining 54 eight (15%) developed clinical and radiological
NEC. None of the 12 exclusively breast-fed infants developed
NEC in contrast with one (5%) of the 19 who received
both breast milk and formula and seven (30%) of the
23 who received only formula. NEC is less likely to
appear in infants who are exclusively breast-fed than
in those who are fed exclusively with formula (p<0.02).
The authors concluded that during the repair of gastroclisis
feeding the infants with expressed breast milk can help
protect them from NEC.
Hylander MA,
Strobino DM, Dhanireddy R. Human milk feedings and
infection in very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics,
102(3): E38, 1998.
The object of this study was to
observe the effect of human milk on the incidence of
infections in very low-birth-weight infants in the first
stages of hospitalization. 212 very low-birth-weight
newborns who were admitted to the Intensive Care Unit
at Georgetown University Medical Center in 1992 and
1993 were evaluated. The incidence of infections (human
milk 29.3% vs. formula 47.2%) and sepsis/meningitis
(human milk 19.5% vs. formula 32.6%) were significantly
different according to the type of feeding. The authors
concluded that the incidence of different types of infections
and sepsis/meningitis are significantly reduced in very
low-birth-weight infants who are fed with breast milk,
as opposed to those who are fed exclusively with formula.
Horwood LJ,
Fergusson DM. Breastfeeding and later cognitive and
academic outcome. Pediatrics, 101(1): 1-7,
1998.
This study examined the association
between duration of breastfeeding and childhood intelligence
and academic success during the period from 8 to 18
years of age. It utilized information gathered during
the course of an 18-year longitudinal study of a group
of over 1,000 children born in New Zealand. In the period
after birth until 1 year of age, the information on
breastfeeding practices was collected. During the time
from 8 to 18 years of age the children were evaluated
with a series of cognitive and academic measurements.
These included childhood Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
tests, educational evaluations of scholastic performance,
and tests on reading, mathematics and study skills.
It was found that longer duration of breast-feeding
is associated with a consistent, statistically significant
increase in 1) IQ calculated at ages eight and nine
years, 2) reading comprehension and mathematical and
study skills assessed during the period from 10 to 13
years of age, 3) educational evaluations of reading
and mathematical calculations from 8 to 12 years and
4) levels of achievement on final exams. The children
who are breastfed for eight months had test values that
were between 0.35 and 0.59 Standard Deviations higher
than those who received artificial formula.
The adjustment of maternal and other factors associated
with breastfeeding in the statistical analysis reduced
the association between breast feeding and cognitive
and educational results. In 10 of 12 models, however,
an adequate duration of breastfeeding was a significant
predictor of cognitive results or educational delays.
With the adjustment for confounding factors, the children
who were breastfed for eight months had average test
values that were between 0.11 and 0.30 Standard Deviations
higher than those that were not breastfed. It was concluded
that breastfeeding is associated with small, but detectable
increases in childhood cognitive abilities and educational
success.
Duffy LC, Faden
H, Wasielewski R, Wolf J, Krystofik D. Exclusive
breastfeeding protects against bacterial colonization
and day care exposure to otitis media, Pediatrics,
100(4): E7, 1997.
This study followed a group of 306
children in two suburban pediatric care centers with
relation to their breastfeeding patterns and episodes
of acute otitis media (AOM) and otitis media with effusion
(OME). Between six and 12 months of age the accumulated
incidence of first episodes of otitis media (OM) ranged
from 25% to 51% in infants who were exclusively breast-fed
and from 54% to 76% in those that had received formula
from birth. After the first three months of life the
longer the breastfeeding duration, the lower the incidence
of both AMO and OME. There was a two-fold risk of suffering
a first episode of AOM or OME in children fed exclusively
with formula, as opposed to those fed exclusively with
breast milk for the first six months of life. In the
statistical analysis feeding with formula was the best
predictor of AOM and OME risk. Breast milk, even for
periods as short as three months, reduces the risk of
otitis media.
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